Guess..
where the Aztecs pointed when the Spanish asked them where they got their knives?
where the Aztecs pointed when the Spanish asked them where they got their knives?
- Obsidian is a naturally formed volcanic glass that was an important part of the material culture of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. Obsidian was a highly integrated part of daily and ritual life, and its widespread and varied use may be a significant contributor to Mesoamerica's lack of metallurgy.
- Obsidian forms when lava cools quickly or is degassed in other ways. West Mexico’s obsidian probably began as lava oozing out of cracks in the side of Tequila Volcano several million years ago, well after the volcano’s more dramatic eruptions into the air.
- Obsidian, the material used for the blades, is a volcanic glass and one of the sharpest materials in the world. It can be honed to a blade far sharper and durable than any other substance. In fact, due to its superior performance over surgical steel, obsidian blades are still used in surgery today.
- The jaguar warriors fought the near tribes and often won, creating the famous Aztec Empire. Afterwards the enemies were kept alive, as prisoners and were later used for ceremonial purposes, such as human sacrifice. The knife is made from obsidian which a volcanic glass that is really sharp. It’s naturally made and a handle was attached to it.
The Itzpapalotl, or black Butterfly goddess myth in Aztec culture. In Aztec mythology, the warrior goddess, Itzpapalotl is associated with the Black Butterfly and referred to by name as 'the Obsidian Butterfly'.
What exactly was ‘obsidian medicine’?
Obsidian, a hard, brittle volcanic glass notoriously difficult to work, was a material with a wealth of symbolic, practical, religious and ritual value in ancient Mesoamerica. But was it also used for medicinal purposes? The Florentine Codex would suggest so: there is a lengthy reference to it in Book 9, in which sacrificial victims offered by the featherwork craft community of Amantlan to their gods were made to drink ‘obsidian medicine’ before being despatched to the gods. What exactly were they being treated with/to..? (Written by Ian Mursell/Mexicolore)
Pic 1: Representations of (obsidian) projectile points were commonly depicted associated with warriors. Codex Magliabecchiano, fol. 7r (Click on image to enlarge) |
According to the Codex, ‘in order that they [the victims] would not fear, that they would not dread death, they first made them drink what they called the obsidian medicine. It is said that apparently by means of it they deprived them of their senses, of their consciousness, so that no longer would they be afraid at the time that they cut open their breasts.. some.. became quite deranged; quite of their own wills they climbed - ran - up to the top [of the temple] of the devil, longing for - seeking [death], even though they were to suffer, to perish.’ Powerful stuff! But was it ‘medicine’, and did it contain obsidian?
The word in Nahuatl doesn’t give us much of a clue: itzpactli literally does mean obsidian medicine, and in Nahua culture certain stones have always had medicinal properties. Indeed, Book 11 of the Florentine Codex actually lists ‘some of the stones which are also medicines’. So the idea, nasty though it sounds, is possible, if not plausible..
The word in Nahuatl doesn’t give us much of a clue: itzpactli literally does mean obsidian medicine, and in Nahua culture certain stones have always had medicinal properties. Indeed, Book 11 of the Florentine Codex actually lists ‘some of the stones which are also medicines’. So the idea, nasty though it sounds, is possible, if not plausible..
Pic 2: ‘Toltec [glossy dark blue-green] obsidian’ (the highest quality) (top); the ‘bloodstone’ (bottom). Florentine Codex Book 11 (Click on image to enlarge) |
We should remember that the Nahua had a high reputation and respect for medicine, which they defined - significantly - as ‘knowledge of precious stones’ and to which they attributed a noble Toltec origin (Book 10) (pic 2). Earlier in the same book, a good physician is depicted as ‘a knower of herbs, of stones, of trees, of roots’. To give one example, the ‘bloodstone’ (eztetl) (pic 2, bottom) (so named as it appeared with a mottled-blood texture) was recommended for soothing a wounded, bleeding body.
Pic 3: Grinding (charcoal) on a metate, Florentine Codex Book 11 (L); ground obsidian on a metate (R) (Click on image to enlarge) |
The eminent French anthropologist Jacques Soustelle sums up this ancient tradition in his classic work Daily Life of the Aztecs on the Eve of the Spanish Conquest:-
’The Mexican physicians understood the use of treatment founded upon a certain knowledge of the human body - a knowledge that was no doubt quite widely spread in a country with such frequent human sacrifices - and of the properties of plants and minerals. They reduced fractures and they splinted broken limbs. They were clever at bleeding patients with obsidian lancets. They put softening plasters upon abscesses and finely-ground obsidian upon wounds - “Ground like flour, this stone spread on recent wounds and sores, heals them very quickly” [Sahagún]”’.
But was it actually consumed as a drink..?!
’The Mexican physicians understood the use of treatment founded upon a certain knowledge of the human body - a knowledge that was no doubt quite widely spread in a country with such frequent human sacrifices - and of the properties of plants and minerals. They reduced fractures and they splinted broken limbs. They were clever at bleeding patients with obsidian lancets. They put softening plasters upon abscesses and finely-ground obsidian upon wounds - “Ground like flour, this stone spread on recent wounds and sores, heals them very quickly” [Sahagún]”’.
But was it actually consumed as a drink..?!
Pic 4: ‘Eccentric flints’ (usually obsidian): on display, Templo Mayor Museum, Mexico City (L); Toltec culture representing drops of water or blood (centre); Maya culture, Musées Royaux d’Art et d’Histoire, Brussels (R) (Click on image to enlarge) |
Another source comes close to the idea: in his classic work Diccionario de Mitología Nahuatl, Cecilio Robelo quotes Torquemada describing a highly esteemed and ‘mystical’ drink consumed by the king and his entourage that was said to infuse and invigorate the soul with valour and ‘unstoppable determination’, taken when swearing an oath at moments of great historical importance. This was itzpacalatl (also known as itzpactli), ‘water of washed obsidian’, a mixture of human blood (from sacrifices) and the residue from ritually washing obsidian blades used to sever human flesh.
Moreover, blood, hearts and obsidian were linked symbolically and ritually as well as physically: in iconography (pic 4), in acts of self-sacrifice, in burial rites (obsidian being the commoner’s equivalent of the noble’s jade stone placed in the mouth to represent [’serve as’] a heart in the next world)..
Moreover, blood, hearts and obsidian were linked symbolically and ritually as well as physically: in iconography (pic 4), in acts of self-sacrifice, in burial rites (obsidian being the commoner’s equivalent of the noble’s jade stone placed in the mouth to represent [’serve as’] a heart in the next world)..
Pic 5: A obsidian blade in a bowl of water gave the Mexica protection against bad spirits.. (Click on image to enlarge) |
A further connection with medicine stems from obsidian’s close association with - amongst other deities - Tezcatlipoca (famed for his black ‘smoking’ obsidian mirror). Alejandro Pastrana cites Fray Durán in referring to a black paste, representing obsidian, with medicinal properties: ‘They came from everywhere to the temple of Tezcatlipoca.. to have the divine medicine applied, and they covered with it the part where they felt pain, and they felt noticeable relief.. it seemed to them celestial..’
Being a reflective volcanic glass obsidian was also imbued with protective qualities: Pastrana gives an example from Sahagún -
’They had another superstition, they would say that to keep the sorcerers from coming into the house to do harm it was useful to place a black stone blade in a bowl of water [pic 5] behind the door or in the courtyard of the house at night, they said that the sorcerers would see themselves there and seeing themselves in the water with the blade they fled.’
Being a reflective volcanic glass obsidian was also imbued with protective qualities: Pastrana gives an example from Sahagún -
’They had another superstition, they would say that to keep the sorcerers from coming into the house to do harm it was useful to place a black stone blade in a bowl of water [pic 5] behind the door or in the courtyard of the house at night, they said that the sorcerers would see themselves there and seeing themselves in the water with the blade they fled.’
Pic 6: Block of Mesoamerican obsidian. British Museum, cat. no. Am.9114-9115 (Click on image to enlarge) |
Since obsidian was believed, like gold and silver, to be a divine secretion, such as seed - of celestial origin but residing below the earth’s surface - miners of obsidian may well have feared disturbing the earth’s innards, as they dug deep down into the ‘prohibited underworld’ (Pastrana). Not surprisingly, (protective) figurines of gods associated with obsidian (Tezcatlipoca, Itzpapalotl, Itzli..) have been found both in mines themselves and in obsidian workshops above ground. Miners had to perform important rituals dedicated to these deities both before and after physically entering the underworld. It’s no coincidence that one of the challenges facing souls on their four-year journey down to Mictlan was facing an icy wind that could slice through you ‘like an obsidian blade’.
Pic 7: Flint knives looming over bowls of agave wine (‘octli’) (bottom L); Codex Vindobonensis pl. 20 (detail) (Click on image to enlarge) |
So where does all this leave us regarding ‘obsidian medicine’?
The answer lies in OTHER deities bearing associations with obsidian. In his masterful book on Tezcatlipoca Mockeries and Metamorphoses of an Aztec God, Guilhem Olivier notes ‘The deities of the agave wine and the drink itself are sometimes associated with obsidian or flint’, with flint knives appearing symbolically over bowls of octli (known as pulque in Mexico today) (pic 7). The eminent German scholar Eduard Seler was one of the first to describe the ritual alcoholic drink of the Aztecs as ‘the “cutting” drink’. Pulque deities, such as Patécatl (sometimes found as Pantécatl) can be seen carrying obsidian instruments (pic 8, left). And an obsidian sceptre with a spherical crown was an important accessory of Techálotl, another pulque god (follow link below to learn more).
The answer lies in OTHER deities bearing associations with obsidian. In his masterful book on Tezcatlipoca Mockeries and Metamorphoses of an Aztec God, Guilhem Olivier notes ‘The deities of the agave wine and the drink itself are sometimes associated with obsidian or flint’, with flint knives appearing symbolically over bowls of octli (known as pulque in Mexico today) (pic 7). The eminent German scholar Eduard Seler was one of the first to describe the ritual alcoholic drink of the Aztecs as ‘the “cutting” drink’. Pulque deities, such as Patécatl (sometimes found as Pantécatl) can be seen carrying obsidian instruments (pic 8, left). And an obsidian sceptre with a spherical crown was an important accessory of Techálotl, another pulque god (follow link below to learn more).
Astropad. Enjoy a 30-day free trial! Pick a payment plan to get started. Makers of Astropad Studio and Luna Display. Turn your iPad into a drawing tablet with Astropad Studio. Extend your Mac display to any iPad or Mac with Luna Display.
Pic 8: Pulque deity Patécatl bearing a large obsidian knife (L - Codex Vaticanus 3773, pl. 90, detail); and holding a ‘pulque enhancer’ (R - Codex Borbonicus, pl. 11, detail) (Click on image to enlarge) |
But we’re not talking here of ‘standard’ pulque: there was a super, knock-out ‘augmented’ variety which contained a special root or herb - sometimes called a ‘pulque enhancer’ - giving it an almost lethal kick. Interestingly, it was Patécatl who was said to have discovered these magical roots that were added to aguamiel (‘honey-water’ - the sweet sap of the maguey agave before it is fermented). The root, called quapatli or ocpatli was always shown as a folded, knotted two-strand cord (pic 8, right). Perhaps the effect of adding this root was, like other drugs commonly found in ancient Mexico, hallucinogenic. Fray Durán mentions such powerful ‘wines’ more than once, usually ‘in connection with men about to endure a terrible fate..’ (Berdan & Rieff Anawalt, vol. 2).
Pic 9: Examples of excessive drinking in Aztec times, with the ‘pulque-enhancer’ root clearly visible; Codex Mendoza, fol. 70r, detail (top), Codex Tudela, fol. 70, detail (bottom) (Click on image to enlarge) |
Whilst supposedly restricted to ritual and ceremonial use, examples in the codices clearly show the pulque enhancer root linked to scenes of (commoner) drunkenness; in the case of the Codex Tudela (pic 9, bottom) the root is actually entering the vat of pulque!
In conclusion, then, ‘obsidian medicine’ was for the Mexica a simple metaphor for super-potent pulque, given to sacrificial victims in the build-up to their departure from the world both to deaden their senses and to encourage them to waltz up the steps of the temple-pyramid with positive enthusiasm. The mind, literally, boggles..
In conclusion, then, ‘obsidian medicine’ was for the Mexica a simple metaphor for super-potent pulque, given to sacrificial victims in the build-up to their departure from the world both to deaden their senses and to encourage them to waltz up the steps of the temple-pyramid with positive enthusiasm. The mind, literally, boggles..
Sources consulted:-
• The Florentine Codex, Books X and XI (Eds. Charles E. Dibble & Arthur J. O. Anderson), School of American Research, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1979
• Daily Life of the Aztecs on the Eve of the Spanish Conquest by Jacques Soustelle, Stanford Uni Press, California, 1961
• The Human Body and Ideology: Concepts of the Ancient Nahuas by Alfredo López Austin, Vol. I (trans. Ortiz de Montellano), Uni of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, 1988
• Diccionario de Mitología Nahuatl by Cecelia A. Robelo, Ediciones Fuente Cultural, Mexico City, 1951 (2nd. ed.)
• Mockeries and Metamorphoses of an Aztec God by Guilhem Olivier, University Press of Colorado, 2003
• The Codex Mendoza by Frances F. Berdan and Patricia Rieff Anawalt (Vol. II), University of California Press, Los Angeles, 1992
• ‘La Obsidiana en Mesoamérica by Alejandro Pastrana, Arqueología Mexicana no. 80, Jul-Aug 2006, pp.49-54
• ‘The Symbolism of Obsidian in Postclassic Central Mexico’ by Alejandro Pastrana and Ivonne Athie, in Obsidian Reflections: Symbolic Dimensions of Obsidian in Mesoamerica (Eds. Marc N. Levine and David M. Carballo, University Press of Colorado, Boulder, 2014
• A Guide to Tequila, Mezcal and Pulque by Virginia Bottorff de Barrios, Editorial Minutiae Mexicana, Mexico City, 1980.
• The Florentine Codex, Books X and XI (Eds. Charles E. Dibble & Arthur J. O. Anderson), School of American Research, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1979
• Daily Life of the Aztecs on the Eve of the Spanish Conquest by Jacques Soustelle, Stanford Uni Press, California, 1961
• The Human Body and Ideology: Concepts of the Ancient Nahuas by Alfredo López Austin, Vol. I (trans. Ortiz de Montellano), Uni of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, 1988
• Diccionario de Mitología Nahuatl by Cecelia A. Robelo, Ediciones Fuente Cultural, Mexico City, 1951 (2nd. ed.)
• Mockeries and Metamorphoses of an Aztec God by Guilhem Olivier, University Press of Colorado, 2003
• The Codex Mendoza by Frances F. Berdan and Patricia Rieff Anawalt (Vol. II), University of California Press, Los Angeles, 1992
• ‘La Obsidiana en Mesoamérica by Alejandro Pastrana, Arqueología Mexicana no. 80, Jul-Aug 2006, pp.49-54
• ‘The Symbolism of Obsidian in Postclassic Central Mexico’ by Alejandro Pastrana and Ivonne Athie, in Obsidian Reflections: Symbolic Dimensions of Obsidian in Mesoamerica (Eds. Marc N. Levine and David M. Carballo, University Press of Colorado, Boulder, 2014
• A Guide to Tequila, Mezcal and Pulque by Virginia Bottorff de Barrios, Editorial Minutiae Mexicana, Mexico City, 1980.
Picture sources:-
• Main pic: photo by Ana Laura Linda/Mexicolore
• Pic 1: image from the Codex Magliabecchiano scanned from our now copy of the ADEVA facsimile edition, Graz, Austria, 1970
• Pix 2 and 3(L): images from the Florentine Codex (original in the Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Florence) scanned from our own copy of the Club Internacional del Libro 3-volume facsimile edition, Madrid, 1994
• Pix 3(R), 4(L) & 5: photos by Ian Mursell/Mexicolore
• Pic 4(centre): photo by and courtesy of Alejandro Pastrana
• Pic 4(R): photo by Michel Wal, Wikipedia (‘Eccentric flint’)
• Pic 6: photo © Trustees of the British Museum
• Pic 7: image from the Codex Vindobonensis scanned from our own copy of the ADEVA facsimile edition, Graz, Austria, 1974
• Pic 8(L): image from the Codex Vaticanus 3773 scanned from our own copy of the ADEVA facsimile edition, Graz, Austria, 1972
• Pic 8(R): image from the Codex Borbonicus scanned from our own copy of the ADEVA facsimile edition, Graz, Austria, 1974
• Pic 9 (top): image from the Codex Mendoza scanned from our own copy of the James Cooper Clarke facsimile edition, London, 1938
• Pic 9 (bottom): image from the Codex Tudela scanned from our copy of the Testimonio Compañía Editorial facsimile edition, Madrid, 2002.
• Main pic: photo by Ana Laura Linda/Mexicolore
• Pic 1: image from the Codex Magliabecchiano scanned from our now copy of the ADEVA facsimile edition, Graz, Austria, 1970
• Pix 2 and 3(L): images from the Florentine Codex (original in the Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Florence) scanned from our own copy of the Club Internacional del Libro 3-volume facsimile edition, Madrid, 1994
• Pix 3(R), 4(L) & 5: photos by Ian Mursell/Mexicolore
• Pic 4(centre): photo by and courtesy of Alejandro Pastrana
• Pic 4(R): photo by Michel Wal, Wikipedia (‘Eccentric flint’)
• Pic 6: photo © Trustees of the British Museum
• Pic 7: image from the Codex Vindobonensis scanned from our own copy of the ADEVA facsimile edition, Graz, Austria, 1974
• Pic 8(L): image from the Codex Vaticanus 3773 scanned from our own copy of the ADEVA facsimile edition, Graz, Austria, 1972
• Pic 8(R): image from the Codex Borbonicus scanned from our own copy of the ADEVA facsimile edition, Graz, Austria, 1974
• Pic 9 (top): image from the Codex Mendoza scanned from our own copy of the James Cooper Clarke facsimile edition, London, 1938
• Pic 9 (bottom): image from the Codex Tudela scanned from our copy of the Testimonio Compañía Editorial facsimile edition, Madrid, 2002.
This article was uploaded to the Mexicolore website on Nov 26th 2018
Q. How would you describe an Aztec sacrificial victim who’s been given ‘obsidian medicine’?
A. STONED..
A. STONED..
See our feature on ‘smoking mirrors’..
Learn more about Techálotl in ‘Personified Knives’
Obsidian monkey jar from Texcoco
Learn a little more about pulque..
The origin of the word pulque
Here's what others have said:
1 At 1.23pm on Wednesday November 28 2018, David Carballo wrote:
Speaking of pulque with enhancers, when I worked in Tlaxcala we were at an ex-hacienda pulquera, and they still make great pulque there. The ranch hands called pulque with a shot of tequila in it “pulque con espuelas” (with spurs). You can imagine what happened when archaeologists had too many of those!
(Redirected from Itzpapalotl)
Depiction of Itzpapalotl from the Codex Borgia.[1]
In Aztec religion, Ītzpāpālōtl[iːt͡spaːˈpaːlot͡ɬ] ('Obsidian Butterfly') was a striking skeletal warrior goddess who ruled over the paradise world of Tamoanchan, the paradise of victims of infant mortality and the place identified as where humans were created.[2] She is the mother of Mixcoatl and is particularly associated with the mothRothschildia orizaba from the family Saturniidae.[3] Some of her associations are birds and fire.[4] However, she primarily appears in the form of the Obsidian Butterfly.[5]
Rothschildia orizaba, the moth genus and species with which the Itzpapalotl goddess is associated
Iconography[edit]
Itzpapalotl's name can either mean 'obsidian butterfly' or 'clawed butterfly'; the latter meaning seems most likely. It's quite possible that clawed butterfly refers to the bat and in some instances Itzpapalotl is depicted with bat wings. However, she can also appear with clear butterfly or eagle attributes. Her wings are obsidian or tecpatl (flint) knife tipped.[6] (In the Manuscript of 1558, Itzpapalotl is described as having 'blossomed into the white flint, and they took the white and wrapped it in a bundle.') She could appear in the form of a beautiful, seductive woman or terrible goddess with a skeletal head and butterfly wings supplied with stone blades. Although the identity remains inconclusive, the Zapotec deity named Goddess 2J by Alfonso Caso and Ignacio Bernal may be a Classic Zapotec form of Itzpapalotl. In many instances Goddess 2J, whose image is found on ceramic urns, is identified with bats. 'In folklore, bats are sometimes called 'black butterflies'.[7] Itzpapalotl is sometimes represented as a goddess with flowing hair holding a trophy leg. The femur is thought by some scholars to have significance as a war trophy or a sacred object in Pre-Hispanic art.[8]
Ritual[edit]
Itzpapalotl is the patron of the day and associated with the stars Cozcuauhtli and Trecena 1 House in the Aztec calendar. The Trecena 1 House is one of the five western trecena dates dedicated to the cihuateteo, or women who had died in childbirth. Not only was Itzpapalotl considered one of the cihuateteo herself, but she was also one of the tzitzimime, star demons that threatened to devour people during solar eclipses.[6]
Aztec Obsidian Knife For Sale
One of the prominent aspects of the ritual surrounding Itzpapalotl relates to the creation story of the Aztec tribe, the Chichimec. The ritual is illustrated in the sixteenth century document known as the Map of Cuauhtinchan No. 2.[9] A illustration from this document shows Chichimec warriors emerging out of a seven-chambered cave behind Itzpapalotl. The deity is shown brandishing a severed leg, thought to be a symbol of battle. Beginning in the 1990s, archeologists exploring the Barranca Del Aguila region, southwest of Mexico City, have discovered caves carved to simulate the seven chambered cave, known as Chicomoztoc, from the ritual creation narrative.[10]
Mythology[edit]
Aztec Obsidian Spear
According to the Manuscript of 1558, section VII, Itzpapalotl was one of two divine 2-headed doe-deers (the other one being Chimalman) who temporarily transformed themselves into women in order to seduce men. Itzpapalotl approached the two 'cloud serpents named Xiuhnel [ˈʃiwnel] and Mimich [ˈmimit͡ʃ]', who transformed themselves into men (so as to disguise themselves when all the others of the Centzonmimixcoa had been slain in the ambush?). To Xiuhnel, Itzpapalotl said 'Drink, Xiuhnel.' Xiuhnel drank the blood and then immediately lay down with her. Suddenly she .. Connects to the VPN, but doesn't work - Tunnelblick | Free .... devoured him, tore open his breast. .. Then Mimich .. ran and .. descended into a thorny barrel cactus, fell into it, and the woman fell down after him.'[11] In the myth-history narrative of the Annales de Cuauhtitlan, the cloud deity victims take the form of deer, the hearts of whom are eaten by Itzpapalotl. The theme of the heart devouring goddess appears in other global mythologies.[5]
Influence on modern culture[edit]
Orizaba the Moth Fairy, a villain in Elena of Avalor, was inspired by Itzpapalotl.[12]
Beyond pop culture, the name of the goddess has been used to name formations, the Itzpapalotl Tessera, on the planet Venus which are being studied for our knowledge of the geological history of our planet.[13]
Additionally, the goddess is one of the Pre-Columbian motifs found in California Chicano Literature.[14]
Ītzpāpālōtl also features prominently in the novel Obsidian Butterfly, the ninth book in the Anita Blake: Vampire Hunter series by Laurell K. Hamilton.
See also[edit]
Notes[edit]
- ^Byland, Bruce E. (1993). The Codex Borgia: A Full-Color Restoration of the Ancient Mexican Manuscript. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, Inc. ISBN978-0486275697.
- ^Itzpapalotl, the Obsidian or Clawed Butterfly
- ^Hugo E. Ponce-Ulloa, M. Sc. 'Beutelspacher's Butterflies of Ancient Mexico'. Orkin. Retrieved 2020-12-12.
- ^Itzpapalotl: Itzpapalotl, Goddess of Fire and Birds in Aztec Religion, MythologyArchived 2011-06-05 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ abGingerich, Willard (1988). 'Three Nahuatl Hymns on the Mother Archetype: An Interpretive Commentary'. Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos. 4 (2): 191–244. doi:10.2307/1051822. JSTOR1051822.
- ^ abMiller & Taube, p. 100
- ^Elizabeth Benson : 'The Maya and the Bat', p. 113. In :- Latin American Indian Literatures Journal, vol 4 (1988). Citing :- Elsie Clews Parsons : Mitla. U of Chicago Pr, 1936. p. 318
- ^Carrasco, David; Sessions, Scott (2007). Cave, City, and Eagle's Nest: An Interpretive Journey Through the Mapa de Cuauhtinchan. UNM Press. pp. 169–178. ISBN9780826342836.
- ^Brady, James E. (2005). Keith M. Prufer (ed.). In the maw of the each monster: mesoAmerican ritual cave use. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. pp. 69–87. ISBN978-0292705869.
- ^Gidwitz, Tom (March–April 2009). 'Map Quest: Follow a pre-Hispanic manuscript into the world of the Chichimecs'. Archeology: 26–29.
- ^Miguel León-Portilla & Earl Shorris : In the Language of Kings. Norton & Co., NY, 2001. p. 61
- ^@_CraigGerber (28 December 2016). 'Orizaba in 'Scepter of Night' was inspired by the Aztec goddess Itzpapalotl' (Tweet) – via Twitter.
- ^Vorder Bruegge & Fletcher, R.W. & R.C (1990). 'A model for the shape of overthrust zones on Venus'. Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. 21: 1278. Bibcode:1990LPI..21.1278V.
- ^de Alva, J. Jorge Klor (1986). 'California Chicano Literature and Pre-Columbian Motifs: Foil and Fetish'. Confluencia. 1 (2): 18–26. JSTOR27921652.
References[edit]
- Miller, Mary; Karl Taube (1993). The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya: An Illustrated Dictionary of Mesoamerican Religion. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN978-0-500-05068-2. OCLC27667317.
- Read, Kay Almere; Jason J González (2002). Handbook of Mesoamerican Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs of Mexico and Central America. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-514909-8. OCLC77857686.
- Sahagún, Bernardino de (1997) [ca.1558–61]. Primeros Memoriales. Civilization of the American Indians series vol. 200, part 2. Thelma D. Sullivan (English trans. and paleography of Nahuatl text), with H.B. Nicholson, Arthur J.O. Anderson, Charles E. Dibble, Eloise Quiñones Keber, and Wayne Ruwet (completion, revisions, and ed.). Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN978-0-8061-2909-9. OCLC35848992.
R.W. Vorder Bruegge; R.C. Fletcher (1990). A Model for the Shape of Overthrust Zones on Venus. Abstracts of the Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, volume 21.
De Alva, J. Jorge Klor. “CALIFORNIA CHICANO LITERATURE AND PRE-COLUMBIAN MOTIFS: FOIL AND FETISH.” Confluencia, vol. 1, no. 2, 1986, pp. 18–26. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/27921652.
Gingerich, Willard. “Three Nahuatl Hymns on the Mother Archetype: An Interpretive Commentary.” Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos, vol. 4, no. 2, 1988, pp. 191–244. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1051822.
Carrasco, David, and Scott Sessions, ed. Cave, City, and Eagles Nest: an Interpretive Journey through the 'Mapa De Cuauhtinchan N° 2. University of New Mexico Press, 2007.
External links[edit]
Obsidian Aztec
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ītzpāpālōtl&oldid=1012878295'